21. Formulation translation Formulation translation is the kind of translation surpasses pre-dictionary translation and resorts to conventions and ready models of translation which have been accepted, as such it doesn't need interpretation in a new language but rather starts from interpreting the ST and moves on the formulation of accepted conventions of previous pre-dictionary translation. Getting to conventions is achieved by reference to bilingual and multilingual dictionaries, to previous translations and by resorting to ones depository or knowledge as a translator. The content, topics, lexical items used in formulation translation are accepted as a part and parcel of TL. Formulation translation is the best exemplified by the media, i.e. newspapers, radio, TV in which international affairs are discussed daily without reference to translation or translators. Formulation translation is the counterpart of the pre-dictionary translation since it borrows interpretation in a new language and uses common collocations and terms conventionally accepted coming either from dictionaries or other linguistic sources including oral transmission. The style of formulation translation as found in familiar registers in normative and well established in TL (weather forecast, news agency output). Examples of formulation translation: - media language (written or spoken) - commercial and business affairs and correspondence - various documents and certificates - political meetings - government papers - international communications - medical and scientific leaflets and circulars Formulation translation essentially revolves around formulation by utilizing the pre-dictionary translation of lexical items and collocation achieved by previous translators. We are to use other translators' results. Basic requirement to it: 1. Correct grammatical structure and morphology 2. correct selection of the lexicon and acceptable phraseology and sentence structure
All these linguistic aspects can be identified and achieved in the light of the TL as in the case of formulation translation 22. Instantaneous translation The term “instantaneous” is used to refer to cases in which the translation is required to be produced in a short time, sometimes directly after a speech while the ST is still being produced. Theoretically the translation and the translated text cannot precede the ST, but sometimes the translator is given the text in advance. Thus, the ST in instantaneous translation whether conversation or a formal speech can be written or spoken. But the translator's output is always spoken. Two kind of instantaneous translation can be recognized: - consecutive translation (CT) - simultaneous translation (SiT) The CT maker produces a sentence/utterance and gives a translator ample time to produce a sentence/utterance (political discussions, conferences). This type of translation is consecutive. In SiT the text is delivered/produced “non-stop” (speech, scientific paper). The translation in such case is also delivered simultaneously. This is the most difficult type of translation. But the modern techniques improved it greatly. Two points relating to theoretical dimension should be made: - as in the case of any kind of translation in instantaneous translation the ST precedes the TT. The time span may be one second. There is little time for careful reading or interpreting the ST nor there is time for being sure about solution, about extempore problems or for checking up references or previous translations. - interpretation in a new language lapses to acquired knowledge and phrases, collocations, clichйs, vocabulary retrieval is impossible. In translation the ST or a part of it will act as a stimulus and stored bit of information or skill will be the response. The aim of trainings instantaneous translation would be to establish the links, crossing points between two languages, to shorten the time needed for this activity to take place. The second stage is a psychological drilling which should help in habit formation. Instantaneous translation whether CT or SiT involves good preparation, is a kind of translation which depends on following conventionally accepted previous translations without taking the translation process to critical point of interpretation in a new language and without indulging in predictionary translation
23. Hypothesis about the language of translation The present hypothesis attempts to express the translation phenomenon as an interpretive and hermeneutic - nothing is stable in a living body (language). As such it contributes to variety of theory which regards translation to be interpretation. What is new in a present-day suggestion of linguistic level that studies specific features which establishes the abstract notion of the language of translation (LoT). This theoretical frame for the study of interpretation in translation and the suggested wider resources has never been suggested before. The present perspective assumes that LoT will differ greatly from SL and TL, there is some “interlanguage” which will not coincide with linguistic features of TL and which will show characteristic peculiar to it. Hypothesis shows a different theoretical frame which expressed an attitude felt both by a layperson and expert alike when they hear a ST. The reader/hearer of a translated text will experience a feeling of estrangement (alien manner). TT is not a free flowing one like ordinary text. Two kinds of utterances are in play of the translated and TT: 1. Is seen in rigidity of linguistic expressions in the TL 2. Is seen in the dynamic nature of interpretation. The first correlates strictly with following the ST, while the second code correlates with adapting and changing the TT to suit the formulation in terms of translated text. The world of translation and the language of translation belong to dynamic world of change through which the translator seeks stability in terms of TL expressions. The difference can be in lexical functions, grammar structures, lexical meaning, and use of terminology, metaphorical images and so on. It is assumed that the differences are the result of the nature of translation itself. If translation is taken to be an interpretation of the text from another language than it will be difficult for it not to bear the stamp of the original language like relocation to alien habitats in a new language, looking for methods that show the difference between SL and TL and language of translation designation theoretical frame to the account form the difference are within the concern of the theory of translation. 24. The theoretical status of the language of translation Translated text is central to the study of translation process, but it becomes dynamic and unstable. Any translation, which is realized in a linguistic or verbal text is reducible to a risky translation suggestion - or conjecture which may approximate to the meaning of ST. So it is an embodiment of translator's interpretation, formulation and strategies? That's why the translated text is transitory (недолговременный, мимолетный). Translated text is an unstable unit. It is less likely to gain currency of the ST. The relatively short lifetime of the TT depends on the number of parameters: 1. It is rear for TT to continue exerting influence over decades and centuries for masterpieces (Bible). Generally, TTs, who survived for centuries are those which have undergone partial or complete appropriation by the translation language. Departing from their source text over many generations, by that time criteria for measurement of translation is a harsh one to someone. 2. Language of translation is transitory in another sense which makes any translated text lacking in some way (something new should be mentioned) 3. Another aspect of transitory is seen in a process of appropriation of tropes, concepts and notions which are introduced in a translated language while a translation, whose uses have since long ago forgotten between translated and source texts 4. Types and sources of translated texts. Types and sources of translated texts Some examples of translated texts. Sources of them include all translations from any language or dialect into other language of dialect. - Religious texts - books as Bible and interpretations and commentaries related to it (new Testament, Old Testament). These texts preoccupied translators and researchers of translation more than any other text in the history of mankind - Various kinds of literary works - i.e. works of literature whether poetry, drama or prose - Documents, contracts, treaties, registries - i.e. historical or archeological documents and documents of everyday use - Old and modern word lists and glossaries used for various purposes - Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries - Old and modern translated texts in the field of science and philosophy - Translation of mass media language, i.e. news, dispatches, reports, different reading material - Political and official texts, i.e. texts in politics, economics, documents related to statehood and governmental policies - Translated texts for obtaining academic qualifications, i.e. translation of manuscripts, scientific articles for gaining academic degree - Translated telecommunication message, i.e. governmental, institutional, business communication translated by telex, telephone, computer and the like - Orally transmitted media materials, i.e. news and broadcasts, news and views programs, debates and interview on radio and television, dubbed translation materials for movies, radio and TV - Translation of daily conversations, i.e. buyer-seller talks, conversations with tourists and strangers - Translation of intragovernmental official materials, i.e. discussions between delegations from different countries, different official discussion of formal bodies from different countries - Translated political speeches, i.e. oral and casual, formal oration - Conference and symposium translations, (instantaneous), translations of works for the purpose of publication - Translations by some individuals for personal use, i.e. a reference written on a foreign or native language
In general, the collection and access to translated texts may not be so easy, because the translator must always have a background information. 26. The level of lexis he level of lexis comprises such points: Vocabulary exchange is a process of re-lexification of a word/expression in a text by the use of another language. The lexical item of another language must be accepted as a translation of the original by the bilingual person Comparing the semantic field is a scope of meaning determined by physical and social context and concept's determination whose content is filled with the number of words in a given language. The intralingual relations within one field may coincide and may not coincide with those of other language (i.e. lexical level). Comparing a semantic field in a SL and in the TL can be used to help the translator to get optimal approximation to an interpretation in a new language. It can also be used to evaluate the translator's success in the movement to the TL via examining the detailed features and semantic spread of item in the semantic field at hand in the SL than the translated items and the TL. The study of the semantic field in the language of translation will provide the researcher with an area which may show translator's specific features. As such the realization of the specific features in translated data will provide a test to the present hypothesis about the intralingual nature of the language translation. Collocations is a habitual association or occurrence of fixed words in a given language, though the grammatical word order choices are in a given slot ruled and governed still grammar will have room for some items to fill the slot. The fact that certain lexical items rather than others occupy the slolt is a question of use and convention. The convention of vocabulary choice or co-occurrence is what is at stake in the study of collocation in the SL, TL, TT. Collocations in TTs can be studies to discover the inevitable use of strange collocations, the level of creative use of collocations, the failure to use what is collocationally known and expected. Here as in the case of the ST collocation provides the researcher with an area to test the present hypothesis about the interlingual nature of the language of translation. Measuring lexical density. The theoretical background of lexical density calculations is simple enough. It requires distinguishing grammar structure, word from content or “lexical or content words” which refer to concepts or actions and states and which generally have content of their own. If the percentage of content words is calculated , this forms the percentage of lexical density in the given text. This density can be examined in similar texts to generalize it on the variety or the text type. In translation the LD of the TT can be compared with that of the variety at hand in the TL. The difference would be due to translation, i.e. it constitutes a feature of the language of translation. Measuring the density of terminology in specialized variety (sub languages) is the terminology of definite groups of people and is called sub language. It is known that the specialized varieties of languages (language of science) resort to the use of terminology more than everyday language, hence, if the percentage of technical and semi-technical terms is calculated it makes up the density of terminology, it offers a reference for comparing the percentage of using terminology in TT and comparable text in TL. 27. Sentence level Measuring the density of terminology in specialized variety (sub languages) is the terminology of definite groups of people and is called sub language. It is known that the specialized varieties of languages (language of science) resort to the use of terminology more than everyday language, hence, if the percentage of technical and semi-technical terms is calculated it makes up the density of terminology, it offers a reference for comparing the percentage of using terminology in TT and comparable text in TL. Comparing type - token ration. The ration of repeating the types can be calculated in a whole text/number of texts representing the variety of the language concerned. Translations in that language can be measured for the same ration to discover if the TTs use a different type-token ratio.
Comparing syntactical complexity (SC) includes some grammatical problems Comparing syntactical complexity includes morphological forms Comparing syntactical complexity includes transitivity functions (TF - Функции переходности) Embeddedness (соответсвие) is a mechanism which helps you to generate a recursive structure. 1. Measuring SC uses descriptive grammar to measure a number of grammatical aspects of text or a given variety of language (types of clauses, degrees of embeddedness). Finally the structure of phrases, each word and each clause, its type and degree of SC should be discussed while studying the subject. The aim is to discover whether the translation affects the degree of complexity to produce translation specific complexity at the level of grammar. 2. Every language has its own morphological system, which defines morphological form and potential forms of derivation from new lexical items. Some forms are regular, others are conventionally transmitted. The researchers will have the chance to find a lot of forms which are not typical for the TL. So, they'll have to imitate them in the TL morphological system. If the type and frequency of grammatical structures and functions are described in a given variety in a given language than the text translated into the same variety in that language may use grammatical structures and functions not expected or found in the grammar of use in the TL. And the researcher can classify such structures specific to the language of translation when they are found and can specify their different functions and structural characteristics of the grammar of the TL and the extent of their manipulation in translation data. Transitivity is a feature not only of verb but also of the clause which covers the participant roles, verbs the time, place and qualifying words. The spread of TF can be described yielding in a functional classification of clause types (time, manner). Transitivity analysis is taken to be a type of lexical grammar which is investigated at clause level. The emphasis is on function of grammatical unit and not on its form. When transitivity analysis is applied to the study of translated texts it is assumed that some TFs unknown or not known in the TL may be found in the translated texts. This assumption is based of the fact that the vocabulary used in the translated text will reflect the lexical meaning of the source text and to carry out the transitivity relations. In other words, the transitivity relations on translation data could be unknown to the TL users. 28. Discourse level Discourse structure (DS) Text structuring in the broad sense is the recognition of sequence of scenes, topics, and times. The study of the DS in the narrow sense requires identifying units of discourse structure, the units of DS in a given variety of language and the relationships between the units. The study of textual organization constitutes one of the aspects of discourse analysis of translation corpora. In a translated text the higher units of DS and the smaller constitutent elements inside them may well be found to reflect the source text and thus, produce unknown or uncommon organizational features in the TL. The translator in such case is producing a new text-type to the TL. The number of lines in a poem or stanza has a poetic function as in the case of the sonnet, a form of which was translated and borrowed to the English in the 14th century. A simple measurement of difference between the poem and its translation is to count the lines and examine the development of the logic or topic structuring.
Comparing conventional discourse functions. Experts in linguistics do not agree with the term “function” in the text. They take it to be understood at the higher level than the sentence and independent from it. There are textual functions that are determined by virtue of other functions in the text and which are inherent arbitrary and conventional. “Conventional” should not be understood in terms of a conventional element in fulfilling the functions of a speech act. It is a “formulaic” convention which has gained its meaning in the text by use. If a translated text shows the same arbitrary conventional functions (e.g. Dear Sirs/Madam) of the ST which may be different from or strange to the TT users then it would be added to the translation specific features of the language of translation.
Comparing the interactive (personal) function The type and frequency of the interactive function and their realization in the ST and in the comparable text in the TL will enable the researcher to observe the types and degree of deviation. The IF which is the manifestation of social functions of language of discourse can provide another aspect of the difference between the TT and TL. Comparing variety of specific discourse functions Reference has been made to comparing conventional discourse functions in translation data and TL. Any discourse function identified in a given variety of language is compared. This comparison enables the researcher to specify the characteristics of a given discourse function as it appears in the SL and TL. Differences if they are found can be described in terms of qualitative differences and qualitative occurrence of each type of the function in each of the language. 29. The level of variety
1. Comparative interlingual variety studies 2. Study of the influence of the language of translation on TL 3. Influence of translation on some individuals 4. Historical comparative interlingual studies.
1. It is possible to study the language variety by collecting texts which occur in certain social situation and studying the recurrent features of these texts. The study of varieties in individual language is the first step towards an interlingual variety study which compares variety features in the SL, translation data and the TL. The interlingual variety, the same variety in SL, translation data in the TL can be used to compare features in the grammatical (sentence) level, textual/organizational level. Features of the language of translation may be observed at the level of variety. 2. The introduction of certain variety to a given language via translation may live the stamp of the SL on the variety of the TL which can be written, spoken or both. The emphasis of research here is on the TL's newly introduced variety; the aim being to discover the linguistic level and degree of influence coming from translation not through time but at given points of time. The study of influence of translation on the given TL may appear in different varieties of this language (borrowing foreign lexical items, borrowing word order, foreign morphological forms, discourse functioning) 3. The researcher may concentrate on the influence on one person/on the group of people. This influence is most obvious in experts and specialists who studied a foreign language and who tend sometimes to translate unconsciously from the languages they know when speaking the native language or the third language they know. It is quite natural when a person studies the subject in a foreign language to translate or borrow when talking or writing about the subject on their own language or the third language. The language of experts may reflect translation influences.
30. The language of translation Survey between two languages. When investigating the language of translation we take into account: 1. The survey of translation between two languages 2. Features of the language of translation 3. The ratio of pre-dictionary translation
The study will survey all known translations from a given language from all the history of translations and the translated corpus. Such a large-scale project will yield important evidence about the characteristics of the language translation. Survey of translation between two languages these are the questions to be considered while doing such a survey everybody must be keen up to: - find the main point - the survey of the previous work should be done - connecting of knowledge dealing with not only the perfect type of translation
Aspects of research are exclusively devoted to discovery of specific features. These features should result from a translation process and not other linguistic or extra type “phenomenon”. All judgments and strategies and manipulations of the translation as seen in translation data are included as the features of the language of translation. So, translation possesses many question for the translator (researcher). Technical terms put in front of the translator a number of choices, ranging from explanation term and new word to borrowing a foreign term and using it in a translated text. Different set of problems can be faced in translation of culture-bound utterances (e.g. Good morning). The translation corpus connected with resorting of predictionary translation. Naturally, if the variety to which the ST belongs, has never been translated into the TL, it is expected that resorting to predictionary translation will be higher than it is in other varieties already known in TL. Some varieties of languages (literary genres( require greater repose to predictionary translation than the semi-formulatied varieties. The study of predictionary translation is nearest to study of the translator's interpretation of parts of the text (utterances). The present theoretical approach about predictionary translation doesn't give a possibility of having one ideal translation for a given text or the given part of the text. So, any translation can be challenged, amended or perhaps improved. Any translation is a “guess”, conjecture and sometimes it is even ironic. Any translation is an unstable, doubtful formation and is generously opened for variations of different kind - refutation. Among other things the evaluation of predictionary translation will include comparisons between the ratios of predictionary translation in a given text and previous translation of the TT the same utterances and the same terms. Also the given translation can be compared with the translations which have followed it. For example, Bible translations ideally set the beginning, all of them should be considered in an overall view of the interhistorical, intercultural and interlinguistic aspects of their most important unique case of translation. 31. Elaboration on vocabulary change as a method of studying the language of translation. Elaboration on vocabulary exchange as a method of studying the language of translation. Vocabulary exchange is the process of re-lexification. It means that it replaces one lexical item with a functionally suitable item from the TL. Re-lexification is used either to study the suitability of a given translation in a translated text as a method of study the suitability of translated text. The researcher, fully aware of the two languages carries out the movement between those languages at a level of lexis as a method based on a social or linguistic context of the utterance. Translator's or researcher's work in lexical exchange is resulting in interpretation or judgment. 32. Observations on interpretation and the language of translation. Predictionary translation precedes any translation and must be accounted for in any theory of translation. As usual we do our translation in semi-automatic language (way), this misconceived by passing by interpretation. It shouldn't be so ( you should always think of your vis-а-vis). Pre-dictionary translation must be the first step in the each kind of translation. The hermeneutic approach ( пояснювальна теорія тлумачення стародавніх рукописів) - is the kind of interpretation has by and large focus on interpreting or understanding the purpose of the ST. By translation itself, necessitates interpretation in a new language and compromising different levels of the meaning. Here we should study: - interpretation of the ST - interpretation in a new language (leaving aside convenction and imitations) It undermined the current consensus (status quo) which prevails among translators. Sometimes the author disagrees this consensus are very known to every translator. Every scientist has his own manner but the way is the same. No translation has its own authority, even Bible. As a methodology, interpreting also uses the social and communicative basis of language events and also resorts to maintain conjecture which makes the translation refined by linguistic knowledge of translation conventions and by experience.
Interpretation in hermeneutic school hinges (depends on) understanding the general purpose of the ST and specifies its aims and social, cultural and psychological functions. All these aspects of the ST are approached with a priori (a belief) in some message of a sort. The purpose of interpretation and translation is derived from the translation purpose itself is to preach ( the Bible), to create a world of fantasy while translating. The purpose of the translation stems from the simple and fundamental principle that the translator is primarily translation and only in the second capacity would be an advocate of the moral or otherwise purposes of the ST. Translation as a linguistic or verbal phenomenon has its own topics and its own methodology. Repetition and imitation are two social and linguistic functions which are based on conventions. Translation and repetition are aspects of psychological process and language acquisition. The drive to imitate and follow convention is deeply rooted in a human desire to conform to the social practices of fellow men and women. It's the force behind establishing language community in which adherence to linguistic conventions and norms promote a sense of belonging. It remains true, that linguistic convention, i.e. the meaning acquired by frequency in using in a language community is and important function of the linguistic science, added to this other psychological and cultural dimensions of convention in a language at large and in translation in particular. Imitation and conventions in linguistic whim are not according all the whims. Linguistic is an ideal frame (the text-type) for the study of certain manipulations of situational factors in translation, in terms of the social and linguistic context involves certain changes and manipulation in the TT. These changes that include emissions, edition and textual manipulation and theoretical and organizational nature cannot be described or evaluated in a TT without a priory study of the linguistic situational factors in the same variety of the translated text in the S and T language if the variety exists in the TL data. The scope of the translation is wider that it was made here to appear to a layperson or translator, who concentrate on the translation as for two given languages. The scope of translation studies includes all translations in all languages at all times. The Theory of Translation is the part of wide theory of Language. The present prospective gives translation a wide scope of inclusions in terms of linguistic data, which comes within the field of study. Refined translation is a crisscrossing of two languages also is very important to different ways of translation illusory stability (every person uses the same words and phrases, but the translation always differ). At its form translation transmits an implied appeal for skepticism toward the illusory stability of the monolingual, monocultural and standardized view of the world. Thus, translation ranks at a high refined level accessible only to those, who master more than one language. In their higher status translator is an interpreter of “prophet” words. It means that he/she can describe foreign words or expressions as a mediator between God and the people/ Obvious lack of emphasis is particularly seen in methodological gap of methods evolving from translation itself. The present theoretical position Stance places translation within the general field of linguistic studies. The authors strongly believe that researchers of the phenomenon of translation could develop new methods which capture the dynamics of interpreting and moving into another language, methods, that proved effective by producing the result of translation and not by nearly speculation about equivalence of textual adjustment. The methodological gap in translation could be the major obstacle in the face of the development of general theory of translation. Communicational linguistic may play a role in methodological advances needed for restable superior theories.
33. Word meaning Any act of communication realizes an organization of words. Speech communities operate on the assumption that situation recur and the particular selection from one speech can be used to suit the situation (Teacher-student) Specific cultural features: In the same situation, that is language oriented schemes. Among the possible ways of word meaning three stand out as particularly interestion: - reference theory Reference theory would express the relation between word-entity “word X refers to entity Y”. CA would make an analogy from chemistry “each word contains a number of atoms in meaning” MP which would relate meaning to meaning through the conventions of set theory “a tiger is a mammal, is an animal”, i.e. a tiger is a kind of mammal and mammal is a kind of animal, or animal includes mammal includes tiger. Reference theory seeks to provide the answer to a question “what is the relationship between the phenomena observed through senses and words that are used to refer to those phenomena” There are two traditional and contrary answers that go back to ancient Greece: a) the link between the word and the object to which it refers is a natural and necessary one which is determined by the structure of the Universe b) the connection is an arbitrary one, constrained by no more than social convention The connection between the linguistic form of the word and its referent is clearly manmade rather than natural. This is a convenient system of labeling objects by means of arbitrary assigned and socially accepted signs. Modern linguistics during the last hundred years has taken as its starting point the need for the relationship between word and object to be an indirect one mediated by a concept. F de Sassier provides rather more explicit model.
Linguistic Object Sign =
Baum
Tree дерево arbre
- componential analysis Componential analysis Man + human + adult + male man “person” Woman + human + adult + female Boy + human - adult + male Girl + human - adult - male Analysis is a real practical technique Watch-clock hour-time uhr-time Home-house (place of living) - meaning postulates Meaning postulates: Features of similarity/difference always exist between concepts
Hyponomy Synonymy Antonomy
B
A fundamental problem for translator is that the relationship between the concepts and the words that express them do not necessarily coincide in the languages involved in the translation. It is not difficult to express such relationships between similarities and differences in terms of inclusion or exclusion. A hyponymy is a total inclusion, synonymy is a partial inclusion and partial exclusion ( the middle term), antonymy is a full exclusion. Synonymy is a particularly problematic because it is overlap of meaning rather than total inclusion or total exclusion. (Hide-conceal are full synonyms). Sapling (молодое дерево) - tree - wood - spinney (заросли) - grove (роща, лесок) - thicket (чаща, заросли) - forest. Antonymy concerns exclusion rather than inclusion. This exclusion involves relationships which can be illustrated by considering the following words : 1. True -false (taxonomy) 2. gold-silver, copper (binary) 3. large-small (converse relations) 4. teacher - student (inverse relations) 5. become - stay/remain
Summary : reference theory regards the relationships between the meaning of the word and entity, which realizes the meaning as one of a straightforward references, i.e. the word stands for the entity. The word is a sign it's a newly discovered linguistic sign which lies on the foundation of linguistics of this century. The CA attempts to extend the usefulness of the sign by building up lexical entities which consists of semantic and lexical distinctive features which are binary in form and listed in as either present or absent. The MP go beyond this specification of the binary components of the individual lexical entry to one which allows to begin modeling the grouping of entries in terms of their sharing characteristics (hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy) and leads us toward the further extension of notion, of linkages between words.
34. Thesaurus What is the thesaurus? The thesaurus provides us with the model for storing groups of words, phrases in a number of ways, whether they are synonyms, or antonyms or related in other ways. The intention of the author was to produce a system of verbal classification or a classed catalogues of words. Roget, “ Any attempt at a philosophical arrangement under categories of the words of our language must reveal the fact that is impossible to separate distinct groups of words by certain lines”. The thesaurus not only created the listings of words and phrases according to the idea they express but show the linkage between groupings. E.g., optimism, n = hopefulness, assurance, cheerfulness, encouragement, brightness, enthusiasm, confidence. It is not equal to pessimism. The linkages behind the thesaurus is very interesting, but it is impossible to divide all the words into thesaurus (first was Roger who tried to divide these words like in theology). The thesaurus is not only interesting as an early attempt to group lexical items on a semantic /conceptual basis rather than put them (as dictionaries do) in an alphabetical order. It was intended to form the base of a polyglot lexicon, which foreshadows the multilngual terminology databases, which are now becoming so common in translating. Hike, march, parade, promenade, stroll, tramp, ramble, saunter, step, tread, pace - walk (thesaurus heading) - lexical and semantic fields Lexical and semantic field is broader than the thesaurus. It links the words in terms of syntactic occurrence (collocation) and phonological characteristics beside synonymy, antonymy . Similarity of collocation is the basic formal relationship n lexis, i.e. the chain of syntagmatic relationship between items a word tends to occur in relatively predictable way with other words (certain nouns with particular objectives/verbs). Sometimes we can predict this. E.g. Chomsky's sentence: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously ( all the words in this sentence are unpredictable) Homeless black cats mew pitifully (predictability of the collocations). Our approach has been to focus on the elements of meaning contained within lexical entries and the extent to which such elements are shar - denotation and connotation Denotative (указывающая) function Connotative (дополнительная) function Cognitive (познавательная) function When we speak about denotative function we speak about its referential objective, cognitive function and hence the shared property of the speech community, which uses the language of which the sentence form a part. The second refers to the associational, affective and subjective function. It may/may not be shared by the community. It is an important to recognize that almost all the words have denotative and connotative meaning (Exception: the words that are not full lexical items: that, it…) It might appear that denotative meaning is relatively simple to describe at least where the words involved do not refer to abstract objects but to concrete objects, processes and relationships, but the description of connotative meaning (being personal is impossible). Reference, or connotative is something individual or is very hard to regard the same attitude. Individualization is the key to understand the attitude. Every teacher has his/her attitude to life and outlook, depending on connotative relations, connotative this is and individual aspect. Sometimes words have not got any denote so they aren't full lexical items (democracy, love, hate). It might appear that denotative meaning is relatively simple to describe at least were the words involved, do not refer to abstract notions but to concrete or easily visualized objects, processes or relationships and the description of connotative being personal is impossible (cup-mug-beaker). Semantic barriers are vague, fuzzy. We express no emotions when we talk about the “cup” it can be distinguished only in special context. - semantic differential Difficult though measurements of the connotative meaning are, a technique has been developed by psychologists interested in structure of memory. Semantic differential using this connotative meaning of a word is arrived at for each individual at the seven-point scales, consisting of a range of bipolar adjective: good-bad, expressing the three factors of dimensions: evaluation, potency, activity engorged from the strongest positive association though neutral to strongest negative association. (cat-bachelor-democracy have nothing in common). Evaluation is the combining of the words: Good-bad, fresh-stale, beautiful-ugly Potency: Strong-weak, large-small Activity: Active-passive, tense-relaxed, hot-cold, fast-slow, solid-liquid.
Bachelor…………………………Spinister -3 +3 Evaluation -2 +1 Potency -1 +1 Activity Total 9 12 Total is an audience attitude. For the translator this potential of the semantic difference, which is the most attractive, what the translator continuously needs are specifications of a connotative word meaning systems of individual writers, speech, communications, authors in different languages. What a semantic difference can offer is comparative sociolinguistic studies of the evaluationof lexical items by individuals and cross-cultural studies of some kind of translation some of which can already be carried out. Summary: the most significant message for translation is the recognition that the essential characteristics of the lexical systems of language is not precise boundary marking, but fuzziness and it presents the most formidable obstacle for translation.
