1. Perspectives on translation There are several translation theories that were popular in former Soviet Union. This course is devoted to new orientations in the study of translation. The questions to be concerned: - What is Translation - What is a translator? - What is a translation theory? These questions are fraud with ambiguity. Since documentary evidence translations dates back to at least 2000 millennia and today international communication depends heavily on translation. And this phenomenon, widely spread in space and time is really ill understood. 2. Translation as a human activity and as a mysterious phenomenon The translation at first glance is a very simple thing. But are there any instructions how to translate? In order to state the problem we are to formalize translation, because today we deal with intuitive translation. To formalize it is to understand the process of translation, to make a bridge between translation theory and translation itself. In general, there is no theory that is absolutely adequate. Not all theoretical information can be formalized at the present stage of knowledge. A lot of scientists made a lot of attempts to find basic methods of formalization. Modern mathematics helps to solve the problem (to describe some units but not the whole phenomena). Why did it happened that until late 1950s translation had never been in the focus of scholars? Translation still seems to be a mystery. The first reason is that the word “translation” itself is ambiguous. Is it a process or a product? The second reason is an abundance of easily available and relatively cheap working force to do the job at the acceptable quality lever. To be accepted as a translator, you needed no special knowledge, your language can be smattering, and you can have no university diploma. The third reason is relatively low qualitative level of translation The fourth reason is that until the introduction of the computers the flow of multi-lingual information to the world has been rather fragmentative. The fifth reason translation is one of the most complex problems that the human intellect may face. 3. Ambiguity problems of translation Ambiguity is the property of language units to be of several different meanings. It depends on how it is expressed in one or another language. Ви бачите голову? Шел дождь и два студента: один в пальто, один в институт. Какие женщины на нас бросали взоры!!! Bare conductor run in the car ( В вагоне был проложен неизолированный провод) In the above examples we should understand that here is not only the meaning of the words but also the relations between them are ambiguities. 4. Theory, model, algorithm: differences and common features Theory, model and algorithm: Differences and common features. Theory is defined as a structure in which each step depends on proceeding steps. The whole structure rests upon observation of theoretical assumption. A theory is used for description, explanation and interpretation and classification of observed events. It is always a regularity rather than individual fact. A theory is based upon known laws and provides guidance for the discovery or formulation of other (unknown) laws. This means that for a theory you'll need observed events (observable : something that is registered by human perception organ or which is deducible from what has been perceived) and a description of each observed event. As a next step one can design a structural classification or the observable that means their interrelation and interdependence which will serve as if theory explaining some current relationships between the observable and behaviour of the latter. What is necessary? - To identivy all observed events, both known and new - To explain their meaning ( to formulate the concepts of the events) - To establish interrelation and interdependence of the events - To predict future events and produce a theory In other a theory is a system of generalized knowledge in one or other area of human activity. In a theory one may distinguish between the formal (representational) and conceptual (interrelational) parts. Any theory begins with the formulation of hypothesis. A hypothesis may be considered as unconfirmed predecessor of a theory. A hypothesis becomes a theory when confirmed empirically. Hypothesis is a scientifically proved assumption either about an event that cannot be directly observed or about a regularity explaining the behaviour of a known set of events. Model (by Morochovskaya) is an abstract logical structure which describes an object or a system by analogy and is intended for the explanation of their behavior. The model is a structure outside the object or system being modeled. A theoretical model describes an object or a system by using observables the behavior of which explains various properties shown by the object or system. Theoretical model uses an analogy of an object or a system. As we compare model and theory, we'll see that a model is more exact and specific description of an object than theory is. Moreover a theory usually establishes a system within an object or phenomenon that is discussed whereas the model just describes the system. Language models form a subcategory of theoretical models. Language modeling is a method of formulating of certain general hypothesis about the structure of a language as an abstract semiotic system as well as a method of experimental evaluation of the correctness of this hypothesis. There are two approaches to any modeling the model of translation and language. These are the modeling by deduction and modeling by induction. Deduction is a formulation of certain sequences of abstract schemes being more or less close approximations of real facts or phenomena of language or evaluation of the correctness of these schemes by application to real languages structures. Models produced by induction are called analytic/ There are some other kinds of models, i.e. paradigmatic models. They describe the principle of combining elements into sets in a language. Syntagmatic models describe the relations between the elements. Algorithm is the last and the most precise type of models. An algorithm is a set of instructions or precisely specific operations comprising certain procedure. An algorithm consists of logical operations and commands. Speaking about translation (which we understand as a process) we may say how translation “works”, we need: - a theory that tells us what the observables and the general principles of the interrealations are, i.e. on what basis they operate and in such a way a translation is produced. - A model to show the system of observables, i.e. the interrelation and hierarchy - An algorithm to show what steps are to be taken to obtain a translation of a source text into a target text.
5. What is translation theory What is translation theory? The requirements for the translation theory: 1) Advances in translation theory can be achieved through a study of the process of translation and would take this suggestion further by declaring that what is required is a description of what process and explanation of it. We are thinking in other words to answer the questions. What happens when we translate? Why is the process as it is? To answer those questions two steps need to be taken: A) It is essential that the balance be redressed through the systematic study of the process. It is the process which creates the product. And it is only by understanding the process that we can hope to help ourselves or others to improve their skills as translators. The need for such a shift of attention already been argued for and we strongly endorse the statement expressed ( Beau Grande, 78, 26). B) We must follow the proposal made by Bassnett McGuire (1980, 37) to adopt the descriptive rather than a prescriptive approach to our investigation of the process recognizing that the purpose of the translation theory is to reach an understanding of the process undertaken in the act of translation and not as it so commonly misunderstood, to provide the set of norms for effecting the perfect translation. Instead of making subjective and arbitrary judgment on the extent to which one translation is better than the other our orientation has to be towards the objective specification of the steps and stages through which translator works as the source text in the original language is transformed into the target text, so the focus on the process which creates the translation rather than on the translation itself. Thus, we should avoid prescriptive translation!!! C) Translation studies must be reoriented towards description, whether of process or product and away from prescription. The most revealing way of dealing with the product is within the conventions of text linguistics.
6. The requirements for the theory of translation (see the previous question) Process of translation: Perception and equity.
Phenomena are observed and collected in the form of data, whose cohesive character is explained by a theory, which is transmitted to others in the form of a model. It is inappropriate to expect that theoretical model of translation should solve all the problems, it should formulate a set of strategies for approaching problems and for coordination of different aspects entailed. By models and analogies we hope to provide clues to the way in which we imagine the system may work (Wills). A theory is an explanation of phenomenon, the perception of system and order in something observed, it exists in the mind, it has no tangible manifestation. It's an idea which constitutes the internal representation of a phenomenon. A model is in contrast an external rather than an internal representation of explanation, it's a realization of the theory. It exists as a tangible object which stands for the idea embodied in the theory.
A model must possess a number of characteristics if it is to be useful
1. It must faithfully represent the theory that it stands for, i.e. indicate what the phenomenon really is rather than what is appeared to be. 2. It must do this by revealing significant characteristics of the phenomenon explained by the theory. It should focus on those parts of the phenomenon which are considered to be the most essential by the theory. 3. It must have a heuristic function making it easier to grasp the explanation and doing that in a way of which makes further study and leads to deeper understanding. This is achieved by means of analogy. It should be revealing of known facts about the original. There is no need to claim that the model does anymore than specify the components involved and the relationships they have with each other. What is than the theory we are searching for? What characteristics should we expect to have? What criteria should there be for evaluating alternative theories?
It is the specification of requirements for a theory of translation A model like all models is an attempt at a description rather than an explanation. An explanation is a theory. A theory must be defined as a statement of general principles based upon reasoned argument and supported by evidence. That is intended to explain a particular fact, event or phenomenon, i.e. while the model answers the question “what” , the theory answers the question “why”.. Giving the ambiguity of the word “translation” we can envisage three possible theories depending on the focus of investigation (process or a product) 1. A theory of translation as a process it means a theory of translation. It would require a study of information processing and within that such topics as perception, memory, the encoding and decoding of messages and would draw heavily on psychology and psycholinguistics. 2. A theory of translation as a product it means translated text. This would require the study of texts not merely by means of traditional levels of linguistic analysis, but also making use of stylistics and recent advances in text linguistics and discourse analysis 3. A theory of translation as both process and product, i.e. a theory of translating and translation. This would require an integrated study of both and such a general theory is preferably the long-term goal for translation studies. The theory must reflect 4 particular characteristics: 1. Empiricism i.e. it must be testable 2. Determinism i.e. it must be able to predict 3. patrimony (экономия языковых средств) i.e. it must be simple 4. generality i.e. it must be comprehensive.
Clearly a theory of translation must confirm as far as possible to these criteria. And the greater the conformity, the more powerful is the theory (Bell, 1985). 7. Methodology for the investigation There are two approaches to the methodology. We should investigate the process which takes place in the mind of the translator. But we have no direct access to it. Maybe, it is necessary to make a model on the basis of interference into the process of translation. The two approaches are: 1. To make a set of statements about the necessary characteristics of the system itself - we make use of induction. This analogy doesn't fit the process of translation exactly, so we have some other kind of access to some experience in the mind. It should be possible to make an introspection. Deduction approach is to build a model of what we ourselves are doing while translating. Cyclic investigation involves induction and deduction altogether. 8. The unit of translation, elements of translation (sh) What is the size of the Unit of translation? What should be in the unit of translation (UT)? Unit is defined as a smallest segment of the source language text which can be translated as a whole in isolation from other segments. It normally ranges from the word through collocations to the clause. It could be described as “small as possible and as large as necessary” though some translators may say that it's a misleading concept since the only unit of translation is the whole text (as to B.Newmark). Some scientists say that the unit tends to be the clause. Others support the notion of co-occurrence between cognitive boundaries and syntactic boundaries. The United Nation Secretary general reported substantial progress in the peace negotiations in Geneva today. This sentence can be divided into several segments according to the rhythmic stress. We intend to approach translation issues by providing text which illustrates the problem and working from descriptive rules rather than prescribing or proscribing. Kazakova: any language unit from phoneme to the whole text can be unit of translation. The main task in correct finding of this unit is finding textual function (relations between the words within the text). A word as a unit of language is connected with the other words of the text and this depends of the situation. These dependences are of system character and constitute context hierarchy. Our position is that translation can only be achieved through the reintegration of the study of the translation within the human sciences, i.e. psychology, linguistics and the like. We should work to discover regularities, strategies, motivations, references and defaults rather than rules and laws. Dominances can offer more realistic classification than can strict categories. Acceptability and appropriateness are more crucial standards for texts than grammaticality and well-formalness. Human reasoning focuses are more essential in using and conveying knowledge than are logical truth (proofs) The task of science is to systematize the fuzziness of its objects of inquiry, not to ignore it or argue it away
9. Translation as an object of linguistic modeling (deduction and induction modeling of translation). For modeling the process of the intuitive interpretation is not so important. Nevertheless, we should always keep in mind the whole system of the language. When modeling a language, we should never forget that the language itself is a format model of thinking that is of mental concept we use. Since language is a model, linguistic modeling is a modeling of a model. We should model the concept in a different way rather than through the situation and so on relevant languages. As an object of linguistic modeling translation is a complex entity consisting of the following interrelated components: - elements and structures of the source text - elements and structures of the target text - transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of the source text into those of the target one - systems of the languages involved in translation - conceptual content and organization of the source text - conceptual content and organization of the target text - interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source text and target text In short, translation is a functional interaction of languages and to study the process we should study both the interacting elements and the rules of interaction. Among interacting elements we must distinguish between the observable ones and these deducables from their observables.
What are observables in translation? These are parts of words, words and word combination of the source text. Besides, the target language has the same elements. Situation is also necessary. During the translation you fulfill the following operations : - deduce the rules of equivalent selection and substitution on the basis of observed events - build a model consisting of target language elements selected for substitution and the deduced rules. - Generate the target text of the basis of this model In the parallel with the generation of the translation model you apply this model to source and target text elements. Thus, the process of translation can be represented as consisting of three stages: 1. Analysis of a source text and a situation 2. Synthesis of a translation model 3. Verification of the model against the source and target concept (semantic, grammar and stylistic), situation and background information At the first stage the chips are put on the conveyer ( на первой стадии порезанный картофель помещают на конвейер). The translation model is verified against the model of the word “chips”.. The results are presented on the table. The co-occuring words of the words situated close to each other in a text have invisible “pointers” indicating various kinds of semantic, grammatical and stylistic information. In the examples we used (deduction modeling( we build up our translation models on the basis of the knowledge about the languages involved in translation and the knowledge of the way things are in life. We formulated the hypothesis of some words and phrases and then verified them.
Induction model of translation is analyzing of source and target texts and building a universally applicable model of translation. This is a powerful translation tool as well. I want you to help me - She wants him to help her - Jim wants John to help him In these three examples we analyzed the grammatical semantic context and draw a conclusion about different grammatical forms in English. (Cease - Soviet Union ceased to exist - the factory ceased the product). Speaking very generally we took into account all elements involved for the translation. 10. Human translation theories HUMAN TRANSLATION THEORY Roughly human translation theory may be divided intro three main groups which can be called transformational approach, denotative approach, communicative approach. One more is the distributional approach which suggest the description of translation which allows us to distinguish between transformational and denotative approach. - transformational approach Transformational approach (TA) This group of the theory of translation regards the process of translation as the transformation. According to the TA translation is viewed as the transformation of the object and structures of the source language into those of the target one. Transformation in translation is any replacement of a source language unit by equivalent in the target one. There are 3 levels of transformations: 1. Morphological 2. Lexical 3. Syntactical At the morphological level morphemes both word-building and word-changing of source language are transformed in those of target language. 1. - tion : preparation, solution - - sion, division 2. in a blue mood (не в духе) with the spade (лопатой) 3. he studies English ( pronoun +verb+noun) According to the TA translation is the set of multilevel transformations of a text in the one language into a text in another language governed by specific transformational rules. The meaning of any sign is determined by a context. We decode them and all the translations use them to greater of lesser extent. Whether they are sufficient? Can we do some algorithms of translation? Within the framework of the TA one may build a formal model of translation using observed events and rules for their interrelations and formal model makes the translation problems and well designed one. Lead absorbs radiation (Свинец поглощает радиацию) lexical and syntactical The structure of the transformational approach:
In the example with the poetry (весел гусь, весел пёс) the approach is insufficient, because the text corresponds to one main idea/concept which is rendered by the translator. This new text (text of translation) also corresponds to one indivisible idea. - denotative approach Denotative approach (DnA) DnA to translation is based on the notion of denotatum ( the relationship between the sign, concept, denotatae). The process of translation consists of the following steps: 1. Translator reads/hears a message in a source language 2. he finds a denotatum and concept, which corresponds to this message 3. he formulates a message in a target language relevant to the alone denotatum and concept.
The relationships between the source and the target word forms are occasional rather than regular The seal is warm tonight A stitch in time saves nine ( хороша ложка к обеду) In the first sentence equivalents are regular and the concept can be divided into those relating to its individual components. The second one: the equivalent between the original and the translation is occasional, and the concept cannot be divided into individual components.
The structure of the denotative approach:
For modeling purposes both alternatives are a possibility and the DA explains the translation process largely as it's alone by TA. It is much more difficult to model translation based on denotative approach. There is only one case when DnA does explain translation (occasional verbal expressions related to the indivisible concept, i.e. poetry, idioms and else).
- communicational approach Communicational approach (CA) This theory was suggested by O.Kade and is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus. Communication may be defined as an act of sending and receiving some information which is called a message. Communicative information can be on any kind: gestures, verbal communication. We receive and send information in the form of written and spoken text in other had, in order to formulated a message we use our system of interrelated data which is called the thesaurus. There are two kind of thesauruses in verbal communication : 1. Language thesaurus (LT) 2. Subject thesaurus (ST) LT is the system of our knowledge about the language which we use to formulate the message. ST is the knowledge about the context of the language message. Thus, in order to communicate the message, sender formulates the mental context of his/her message using subject thesaurus, then he encodes it using the verbal forms of LT and conveys to the message recipient, who decodes this message also using LT and interprets the message using the ST as well. This is the simple description of monolingual communication. It's very important to understand that message sent and received is different the thesaurus of message sender and recipient maybe different to a greater of lesser degree and that's why we sometimes don't understand each other even when we think we are speaking one and the same language. So, in monolingual communication there are two members: sender and recipient, and each of them uses 2 thesauruses (also they use the same language, so each underlying knowledge is different in bilingual communication. We have 3 actors: sender, recipient and intermediate (translator(. The translator has two language thesauruses: source and target one and translator performs two functions: decodes the source message and encodes the target one to be received by the recipient (or user of the target language) Generally speaking, O.Kade's communicational theory of translation describes the process of translation as an act of bilingual communication in which the translator acts a special communicative intermediary making it possible to understand a message sent in different languages.
Several new school (стая рыб, школа) appeared in the area. Let's consider the encoding (message formulation) or message received (message decoding) translation depends on the translator only. The example of miscommunication based on an insufficiency of extra linguistic information. Thus, CA to translation though saying a little about translation highlights the most important aspects of translation itself. Translation is the message sent by a translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation depends of similarity of their background information rather than only on linguistic correspondance.
- distributional approach Distributional Approach (DA) It was developed by our scientists Miram much less widely know. He called his approach “дистрибутивный'. Linguistic distribution is an ability of language unit to occur in the text together. Distribution pattern reflects meaning and combinatorial potential of lexical unit, distribution of language unit of the text reflects the fragmentation of the real world in the human mind. Stone - heavy - small - brown - throw - fire - round Fragmentation of the real world means that we have definite picture. In any language distribution is the model of : - compatibility with other linguistic units (other things( - world structure profaning to a particular linguistic unit
According to the DA translation is a process of matching the distributional patterns of the source and target language units. In DA one should distinguish between regular and occasional distributional patterns. Regular pattern is a characteristic of the LU which occurs together on regular basis as members of common distribution paradigms the formation of which is determined by grammar rules and the lexico-semantic structure of a lecture. Shall-will (future tense is regular usage constant rule). Lexical variation are red-mood, red coat, blue mood, blue tie. Regular pattern of a distribution is characterized by the fact that each of the linguistic unit occurring together corresponds to its individual concept of rather than forming concept with its “neighbors”. Regular distributional patterns form the structural basis of any language and are the anchors of any translation (they cover the majority of word combinations). And it's possible to model both the combination rules of particular language and the rules used to match the combinations in different language in distribution pattern. Occasional pattern is a characteristic feature of LU that occurs together occasionally being members of different paradigms determined by grammar rules and the lexical-semantic structure of a language. Besides, Lus occurring together occasionally form a single indivisible concept “red alert” - повышенная боеготовность, “ cold start” - запуск холодного двигателя. According to the DA the translation process takes one of the following paths: - word combinations within a regular distributional pattern are translated by parts using the rules and matching distributional patterns of the two languages, both determined by language grammar and lexico-semantic paradigms, - word combinations with an occasional distributional patterns are translated as “conceptual whole” in a unique way (depends on a situation) which is true only for that given occasion; DA clearly divides the pattern of translation intro transformations and conceptual equivalence objective or an objective basis of distribution, what is clearly called “observed events” - translation ranking Even in a routine translation there is always a translation raking. There are different ranks or levels of translation (the theory of translation equivalents levels - Komissarov, Rezker, Barkhudarov). According to the theory of translation equivalence the translation process fluctuates passing from formal interlanguage transformations to the domain of the conceptual integration. Komissarov's approach seems to be a realistic interpretation of the translation process, but this approach fails to demonstrate when and why one translation equivalence level becomes no longer appropriate and why to get a correct translation we are to pass to a higher translation equivalence level. If we compare TEL with two ranks proposed by DA (regular and occasional) the distribution ranks are based on the observed events and suggest a clear distinction which may become a modeling factor. Idea, similar to TEL are expressed by Katskiy, who maintains that any two languages are related by regular correspondence (word, word-building patterns) and irregular one. The irregular correspondence cannot be expressed formally and only the translator's knowledge can help to find the formal expression in the TL According to the J.Firth in order to bridge language into the process of translation one must use the whole complex of linguistics and intralinguistic information rather than limit oneself to purely linguistic objects and structures. S.Catford (a linguistic theory of translation) similar to Komissarov's and Firth's interprets translation as a multilevel product. He distinguishes between “total and restricted” translation. In total translation all levels of the ST are replaced by those of the TT. In restricted translation the substitution occurs at only one level. According to Catford a certain set of translation tools characteristics of a certain level constitutes a rank of translation and translation performed is called rank bound. Translation ranking are theories that divide the translation process into different levels. Translation ranking is a typical approach in translation modeling and algorythmization. All theories of human translation give no rules of translation. The TA suggests that in any language there are certain cyntactical regulator, word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogues in another language during translation DnA treats different languages as a closed systems with specific relationships between forma and conceptual aspects. Hence, in the process of translation links between forms of different languages are established via conceptual equivalents. This theoretical platform can be used when designing semantic and others language models of translation. CA. It should be born out in mind that in any case observed events which one deals within the process of translation are forms of the two languages as well s the mental contact designed to those forms by the speaker of the language and in any translation we observe a combination of different methods. Human Translation Theories
11. The translator's knowledge, skills and abilities What does the translation knowledge contain? A professional “technical” translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge: - target language - text-type knowledge - source language - “real world” knowledge (subject area) - contrastive knowledge
Add to this decoding skills in reading and encoding skills of writing and we have the initial listing of the specification of the translator competence. Besides this of prime importance is the embracing linguistic knowledge: semantic knowledge - syntactic knowledge - pragmatic knowledge - lack of control in any case means that translator could not translate.
12. Ideal bilingual competence What is a good translator? (discussed through ages) Given the goal of linguistic to match the native speaker's competence and applied the linguistics theory of translation should aim to match the bilingual native speaker's competence. Bilingualism is seeking an integration between language and the real world of the domain and the real knowledge. Ideal bilingual competence - expertise - communication competence is focused on the competence of the ideal translator, either ideal bilingual. Chomsky's “ideal speaker-hearer or reader-writer” knows both languages perfectly and is unaffected by such theoretical irrelevant conditions and memory limitations like distractions, slufts of attention, errors in applying this knowledge in actual performance. 13. Expertise An alternative to the real world is certainly expertise Expertise and alternative to the ideal model approach to the same problem expressed in general terms. It is based on conclusions drawn from the observations of the translator performance. It is an attempt to study the craft of the human translator as an expert systems (due to the interest to a computer-assisted translation). Translators are experts. Expertise is an expert system like the software package. It is a connection of rules that allows to benefit from the knowledge of an expert human consultant. This knowledge is typically built into the system as a collection of rules (database) that can be updated with the use. They are used to give advice to users, to organize knowledge. It contents: - a knowledge base that contains compound knowledge expertise of the domain - inference mechanism (inference engine) - генератор висловлювання Knowledge base consists of : - source language knowledge (syntactic system) - code rule - text creating system with definite system of rules, the same as with source language Target language knowledge Text-type of knowledge Domain knowledge Contrastive knowledge of each of the above. Inference mechanism permits decoding of the text (reading and comprehending), encoding of the text (writing the text in the target language). 14. Communicative competence Competence consists of 4 braches of knowledge: -Grammatical - Sociolinguistical - Discourse - Strategic Grammatical is an important knowledge of the rules of the code including the vocabulary and word-formation, pronunciation, spelling and sentence structures that is the knowledge and skill required to understand the literal meaning of the utterance. Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to produce and understand utterances in context that is status of the participant, purpose of interaction. Discourse competence is the ability to combine form and meaning to achieve unified and written texts in different genres. This unity depends on cohesion in form and coherence in meaning. Strategic competence is the mastery of communication strategies which may be used to improve communication or to compensate breakdowns. Chomsky about translator's linguistic communicative competence: “The knowledge and ability possessed by the translator which permits him/her to create communicative acts, discourse, which are not only grammatical, but socially appropriate”.
15. Editing and interpreting of the source text Editing of the source text is the study of the source text and for reading a linguistic form which is occurred for translation. It is necessary when the translation of manuscript is to be done ( closely to the text) or to complete the text, or to recognize it. Editing the source text is required when the source text is relatively new. Manuscripts of the source text can be known only to the translator. There are a lot of methods of editing based on discourse analysis Study of the ST is the establishing the authorship for reaching a linguistic form while translation is necessary when you need to study background of the writing, when you need to reconstruct an old text to slang (belonging to a different kinds of ancestry), it can be required in case when the ST is relatively new - repair the text - be ready to discuss in future. Editing can be base upon discourse analysis of text-type, different spoken varieties when the ST has been edited and adopted for translation only than translator can move to another level - interpreting of the ST: There are two types of interpretation recognized here: - interpretation within one language - interpretation within different languages
First type is seen in giving the text or part of the text a reading with lexical grammar and meaning of the text in its linguistic and social context. The process of assigning meaning to the text or utterance depends on the linguistic systems and context of the source language. The encoding the ST involves this process of interpretation or assigning meaning with no reference to translation. This process is essential, because it's a foundation upon which a new text, a translated text is constructed. This analysis starts of analyzing scripts, sounds, and lexical grammatical relations between the sentences. So, the process ends with an interpreted reading by establishing the textual functions of the ST and its realization of the contents and social communicational functions in a given variety of discourse The interpretive process is completed by re-construction the linguistic elements of the ST at different levels in order to give one specific meaning or/and interpreting to the whole text or utterance. This newly built message will find its way to a new language in terms of a new language or formulation. It is a translation or interpretation will find their way to a translated text. (Translation leaves its fingertiprints - as human agent can do). The human agent in the case is the interpreter who Is to establish the to-be-translated text. Everything depends on the abilities of a translator. This is a world of a difference - text on paper, on PC, clay or wood - all kinds may be translated using the linguistic systems of the translator.
16. Interpreting in a new language Interpretation in a new language It is the most important stage in translation. It is and essence, in an only central point in transformation of linguistic text or part of it to language other than its own, and carries fingertprints and uniqueness since it shows its interpretation in a new language and results his/her interpretation in a new language. The end product is a translated text. The most important aspect is the movement or crossing from one language to another. In this crossing of language boundary which leads across the shadowy almost dark area - through conjecture to entire language. Thus, interpretation in a new language exists in every translation. The most vital task is to interpret the ST in a new language adequately. 17. Formulating the translated text Formulation is the stage of translation process in which the translator chooses the lexis and structures that would make meaningful sentences functioning in a narrow co-text as elements of a well-structured text. Formulation as a composing operation subjugates the interpretation of the translator to the systems of the target language. This constitutes the appropriate field for undertaking any grammatical adjustments and textual manipulations made by the translator. On this stage of translating process composing meaning to make a translated text is best revealed. It is the stage at which the translated text gradually takes form. There are three aspects of the formulation: 1. Collection 2. Semantic field 3. Sentence and grammar 4. Editing the formulation Editing the translated text is the final step in translating process. The editing of the translation involves the comparison between the translation produced on one hand and prevailing linguistic features and cultural norm in the text type in the target language on the other hand. For this purpose the characteristics of the text-types, linguistic and extra linguistic should be investigated and described in the TL. 19. The relationships between the elements and stages of translation Types of translation 1. Pre-dictionary translation 2. Formulation translation 3. Instantaneous translation Three types of translation can be recognized. Each kind of translation places emphasis on certain linguistic process. 20. Pre-dictionary translation Pre-dictionary translation lurks in every translation. No matter how rough or refined the translation could be. This translation is the use of interpretation in a new language to transformulate of to move a text from its language to target language under the prompt complexity of different contexts, textual functions, social functions of the two text and with no reference to a bilingual dictionary or other type of translated date. First translator is the person who previously obtained translation. Overwhelming majority of scientists do not recognize the case for studying the pre-dictionary translation. It is noticed that pre-dictionary translation essentially depends on an interpretation in a new language. In this kind of translation the translator is the first to attempt to translate the text or the term concerned. Theoretically the study of pre-dictionary translation requires the establishment of a translation specific linguistic level to describe the different aspects of the translator's treatment of the material, in which the interpretation in a new language and pre-dictionary translation occupy the center. The linguistic level of translation specific features should study all aspects and kinds of translation. This should include all kinds of textual manipulations as dictated by the translator's judgement and as manifested in the translated text in terms of omission, addition, adaptation and paraphrase. This textual features differ in kind and in quality of linguistic process and communicative purpose and are realized differently in different varieties of language of different social and cultural settings. If we examine stage of formulation in pre-dictionary translation we'll find out that it doesn't lent itself to strict formulation and editing in terms of the TL since such strict treatment will change its interpretation beyond recognition. Doggedly following the TL the translator will fail to convey the meaning of the source text, not to speak of its flavor or richness. When pre-dictionary translation is left un-tampered with it will be no more than an explanation of interpretation in a new language producing the collocations and meaning unfamiliar with the users of the TL. This type of translation doesn't accept the colours of TL. Pre-dictionary translation is the best candidate for studying the interlingual nature of the language of translation.
